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Introduction: Epilepsy is the most common neurological disorder. It has been suggested that recurrent seizure attacks may damage brain tissue. Dark neurons are known as unhealthy cells and obserevd in neurosurgical biopsies, experimental ischemia, hypoglycemia and epilepsy. This study was aimed to investigate probable neuronal damage in the amygdala after acute seizures induced by pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) in rat. Materials & Methods: Male Wistar rats were divided into control, sham and PTZ groups. EEG recordings were performed before and after the PTZ injection. The number of dark neurons in the amygdala was measured and analysed in all different groups. Results: There was no significant difference in the number of dark neurons in the amygdala between PTZ, control and sham groups. Conclusion: The result of present study showed that acute seizure may not damage neurons in the amygdala nuclei.

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Introduction: The glutamergic receptors affect the synchronization of spike and wave discharges in different animal models of absence seizure. We studied the distribution of a NMDA subtype receptor in CA1 area of the hippocampus. Materials and Methods: Expression of NMDA subreceptor R2, the predominant excitatory neurotransmitter receptor in the brain, was investigated in rats suffering from absence-like seizures. Results: Rats with absence-like seizures exhibited decreased number of these NMDA subreceptors in the hippocampal formation. Conclusion: Changes of expression of these receptors in the hippocampus may be involved in cognition deficits in absence epilepsy.

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Introduction: Spreading depression (SD) is an intrinsic bioelectrical activity in central nervous system which play important role in pathophysiology of some disorders such as migraine with aura, epilepsy, transient global amnesia, and spinal cord diseases. Materials and Methods: The juvenile rats were anesthetized and recording electrodes and cannula were implanted over the brain. Repetitive cortical SD events were induced by KCl injection through the cannula. Four weeks after the KCl or Ringer injection, all rats, including control, sham and SD groups, were decapitated and the brains removed. The distribution of NR_2B subunit of NMDA receptors and the GluR1 subunit of AMPA receptors were assessed by immunohistochemical staining. Results: Expression of NR_2B receptors in the CA1 region significantly increased in the SD group compared with the sham and control group (P<0.05). Also expression of GluR1 receptors in the CA1 and CA3 regions significantly increased in the SD group (P<0.01). Conclusion: Our result showed that SD enhanced expression of the NR2B subunit of NMDA receptors and the GluR1 subunit of AMPA receptors in various regions of the juvenile rat brain.

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Introduction: Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common cause of dementia among older people, gradually destroys memory and learning skills, and eventually the ability to carry out all tasks. In most people with AD, symptoms first appear after age 60. Materials and Methods: The experiments were carried out in adult (6-7 months old) male Wistar rats (230-270 g) in 3 groups of control, sham and Streptozocin (STZ). Animals in sham and STZ groups received normal saline and STZ intraventricular injections for two days, respectively. To assess spatial memory 8, 18, 30, 45, 70, 90 days after STZ injection, passive avoidance test was performed. Results: The mean retention latency decreased in STZ groups compared to control and sham groups. According to our findings, the most serious short-term and long-term memory loss was observed 90 days after STZ injection. The long-term memory destroyed earlier than short-term memory in STZ treatment rats. Conclusion: STZ injection in rats was resulted in significant time-dependent damages of cognitive abilities.

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Introduction: Apoptosis plays a crucial role in normal development of central nervous system. In fact, disregulation of apoptosis is the major pathophysiological mechanism of many diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease. The aim of this survey was to study the role of apoptosis in neuronal injury during Alzheimer's disease. Materials and Methods: The experiments were carried out in adult (6-7 months old) male Wistar rats (230-270 g) in 2 groups of sham and streptozocin (STZ). Animals in sham and STZ groups received normal saline and STZ intracerebroventricular (ICV) injections for two days, respectively. To assess neuronal apoptosis, 18, 45 and 90 days after STZ injection, TUNEL test was performed. Results: The result showed that apoptosis in hippocampal CA1 and CA3 areas were significantly increased in rats treated with STZ after 90 days. Also, there was a significant increase in the mean number of apoptotic cells in rats treated with STZ after 90 days compared to their age-matched sham group in the hippocampal CA1 and CA3 area. Conclusion: ICV-STZ injection in rats was resulted in significant neuronal apoptosis in the hippocampus.

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Introduction: Memory is ability to acquisition, maintenance and retrieval of information, which is classified through different ways. Complex mechanisms play a role in learning and memory that ultimately leads to biochemical, morphological and physiological changes at the level of synaptic and neural networks. The basic mechanisms involved in the formation and stabilization of memory are synaptic facilitation, long term potentiation and long term depression. Conclusion: Considering the importance of glutamate receptors (especially NMDA subtype), calcium homeostasis, balance between kinases and phosphatases, calcineurin, cellular adhesion molecules, extracellular matrix, glial cells, and different neurotransmitters in process of memory formation, this study evaluate the cellular and molecular pathways involved in learning and memory.

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Stress is the way that our body responds to something that is out of the normal. When we are under stress, our body makes chemical and physical changes to try to maintain it. Everyone responds to stressful status in their own way. Researches show anxiety and stress during pregnancy can have both immediate and long-term effects on her offspring. In addition, the emotional state of the pregnant mother maybe affects her unborn child. The chances of having a healthy baby increases in the mothers are healthy. Anything can cause stress but stress alone cannot cause birth defects. Pregnancy can be a stressful time for many mothers. We can reduce our stress with different techniques for example: talking about our feelings with our friend, family, husband, employer, mental health professional or a trained counselor, having a healthy diet, eating regularly and nutritiously, drinking lots of water, trying to have fun, feeling positive, following an exercise plan with her health care provider’s approval, avoiding stressful people and stressful situation, relaxing, listening to music, writing a journal, resisting to drink alcohol, smoke or taking herbal products or drugs, resting when body needs it. All of the above can be helpful for us to reduce our stress in pregnancy.

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Introduction: Neuromarketing is an interdisciplinary field that is rapidly emerging in the world of consumer cognition research. Furthermore, it is an innovative field of marketing research which challenges the classic marketing model to improve our understanding of the processes associated with purchasing behavior. Neuromarketing is investigating the manner that consumers make the decision to purchase. Based on the neuromarketing concept of decision processing, consumer buying decisions rely on bi-systemic approaches. System 1 is based on fast automatic operations in contrast, decisions driven by System 2 are deliberate, conscious reasoning, and slow. In cognition of the consumer behavior, these processes guide everyday purchasing decisions. Furthermore, neuromarketing is built on the top of at least three basic science fields, including neuroscience, behavioral economics, and social psychology. The aim of this review was to investigate the different aspects of neuroscience involved in neuromarketing. The signals from the human body and brain are important for understanding the origins and operations of neuromarketing measures. Body measures are contained the facial expressions, eye movements, eye blink, startle reflex, behavioral responses, electrodermal activity, heart rate, blood pressure, pupil dilation, and respiration. The human brain signals are captured by the blood oxygenation, positron emissions, electrical fields, and magnetic fields. Conclusion: Understanding the basic functions of human brain is crucial in investigation of consumers’ purchasing behaviors.

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Brain injury is the leading cause of death and disability in the most active population. There is no definite clinical treatment for repair of damaged brain tissue. Application of nanoscaffolds supporting stem cells can be helpful. The present study examined the effects of autologous adult neural stem/progenitor cells (NS/PCs) seeded in PuraMatrix in acute brain injury. The right brain subventricular zone of adult wistar rats was stereotactically harvested. Then, NS/PCs were cultured using neurosphere assay. At day 45, brain injury was performed in left side of brain and PBS, PuraMatrix, NS/PCs or PuraMatrix+ NS/PCs was injected into the created cavity. The neurological status was evaluated for 4 weeks. Then, morphological and immunohistochemical studies were done. The neurologic status improved after treatment of brain injury with PuraMatrix, NS/PCs or PuraMatrix + NS/PCs. The lesion volume was decreased in PuraMatrix+ NS/PCs. By 3D transplantation of NS/PCs, not only the rate of inflammation was reduced but also the survival rate in the site of injury was increased. In addition, the transplanted cells expressed the differentiation markers after 4 weeks. Transplantation of adult NS/PCs in PuraMatrix may be a feasible method for reduction of tissue damage following brain injury.

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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a chronic and progressive disorder that occurs after some traumas and accident. Injuries and harm to health caused by motor vehicle accidents (MVAs) have become an issue of global concern, as MVAs are expected to be the third largest contributor to the worldwide burden of disease by the year 2020. Chronic PTSD is a common consequence of MVA and that it may persist for years. Women have higher rates of PTSD than men after MVA. In the last years, many studies have evaluated the psychological consequences of MVAs. However, there are discrepancies in epidemiological studies. As an additional issue, other predictors of PTSD immediately after MVA have been established Signs such as heart rate (HR) and respiratory rate (RR) immediately after injury predict subsequent PTSD remains controversial. Although many studies have shown an association between HR and PTSD, but recent study did not repot an association between HR, RR, and PTSD. Elevated HR and RR might reflect initial fear conditioning and thus would be important factors in the mechanism of genesis of PTSD. It seems that, HR and RR they might not be useful indicators of subsequent PTSD among accident survivors in clinical protocols, but any physical reactions like pounding heart might be an alternative to predict subsequent psychiatric morbidity.

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Delayed neuronal death after seizure attack may be mediated by the induction of apoptosis-pathway. Caspase-3, a mammalian cysteine protease, promotes apoptosis after some neurological disorders. Neuron Regeneration Peptides (NRPs) are small synthetic peptides that stimulate neural proliferation, migration, and differentiation with no apparent toxicity and high target specificity in CNS. In the current study, we try to investigate the effect of NRP 2945 on the apoptosis after seizure activity induced by Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) in rats. The effects of different concentrations of NRP 2945 (5 and 20 µg/kg) were tested on expression of caspase-3 protein in the temporal cortex and hippocampal area after seizure induction by immunohistochemistry. In addition, the number of terminal deoxynucleotidyl-transferase-mediated dUTP nick end-labelling-positive neurons in the hippocampus and temporal cortex was investigated by tunnel staining after NRP 2945 application in epileptic rats. Application of NRP 2945 at 5 and 20 µg/kg decreased the expression of caspase-3 protein in the CA1 and CA3 hippocampal areas and the temporal cortex. In addition, application of NRP 2945 at 5 and 20µg/kg reduced the number of apoptotic neurons in the both temporal cortex and hippocampal area. This study indicates that NRP 2945 is able to prevent the neuronal apoptosis induced by PTZ by suppressing of caspase-3 protease. Further studies are needed to elucidate the potential role of NRP 2945 as an anti-apoptotic drug.

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Triazine derivatives are small synthetic peptides with no apparent toxicity and high target specificity in central nervous system. Hippocampal tissue is the most vulnerable area in the Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The aim of this study was to investigate the neuroprotective effect of triazine in AD induced by intra-cerebro-ventricular (i.c.v.) administration of streptozotocine (STZ). Male Wistar, weighting 200-250 grams were bilaterally implanted with chronic cannula in the Lateral ventricle. Animals were divided into seven groups Control group: animals received no surgery and treatment. Saline group: animals received normal saline after recovery. Sham group: animals received 10% DMSO after recovery. STZ group (Alzheimer’s model): animals received STZ in four and six days after recovery. T5, T10 and T15 groups: animals were treated with triazine derivative, C16H12Cl2N3S, at doses of 5, 10 and 15 µM, respectively. All drugs were injected i.c.v. To assess the neuroprotective effect of triazine, we measured the hippocampal CA1 pyramidal layer thickness in all tested groups. The CA1 pyramidal layer thicknesses in STZ group reduced significantly compared to control group. Triazine increased the CA1 pyramidal layer thickness in T15 group compared to STZ group. Our findings suggest that triazine may have protective effect on the hippocampus.

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Methamphetamine hydrochloride is a white to light brown crystalline powder, or clear chunky crystals resembling ice. The majority of street methamphetamine is produced in clandestine laboratories. The drug manufacturer states that patients should be informed that methamphetamine and amphetamine may impair the ability to engage in potentially hazardous activities such as driving a motor vehicle. In epidemiology studies drive-off-the-road type accidents, high speed, failing to stop, diminished divided attention, inattentive driving, impatience, and high risk driving have been reported. Significant impairment of driving performance would also be expected during drug withdrawal. In a recent review of 101 driving under the influence cases, where methamphetamine was the only drug detected, blood concentrations ranged from <0.05-2.36 mg/L (mean 0.35 mg/L, median 0.23 mg/L). Driving and driver behaviors included speeding, lane travel, erratic driving, accidents, nervousness, rapid and non-stop speech, unintelligible speech, disorientation, agitation, staggering and awkward movements, irrational or violent behavior, and unconsciousness. Impairment was attributed to distraction, disorientation, motor excitation, hyperactive reflexes, general cognitive impairment, or withdrawal, fatigue and hyper somnolence.

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Epilepsy is one of the most prevalent serious neurologic conditions, affect 1 % of the population worldwide. People with epilepsy may feel it's safe to drive when their seizures seem to be under control, but patients with epilepsy were seven times more likely to have a driving accident leading to emergency room care than those without epilepsy. People with seizures had 2.3 times the rate of fatal driver crashes as people with cardiovascular disease or high blood pressure and 4.6 times the rate for patients with diabetes. From results of a survey of 72 epileptic car drivers who had a mean driving history of 8.6 years, 18 (25%) had experienced one or more automobile accidents ascribed to a seizure while driving, with the total number of accidents of the surveyed group amounting to 35. All the drivers were known to have partial epilepsy, 13 of them having temporal lobe epilepsy. Most accidents caused damage to only the driver's car and/or mild physical injury and fifty-four percent of the accidents were not reported to the police, and many that were reported were ascribed to driving while asleep, to careless driving or to similar behavior.

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Modern neuroscientific research help to solve the impotent challenge in curriculum design and teaching for enhancing students’ ability to organize information in a way that makes it efficient in response to an appropriate context such as problem solving and critical thinking via knowing about the mechanism of different type of memories especially long term memory. At first, we should to clarify the difference between short-term memory (working memory) in modern usage and long-term memory. Working memory is dynamic and last short time (seconds to minutes). Working memory outfits information from long-term memory to administer when necessary. In fact it organize information for an especial purpose: e.g., application to a task, problem solving, and communication. Long-term memory is the information we have committed to long-term storage for retrieval at a later time. Long-term memory is more stable and can persist for a lifetime. Working memory is mediated by the frontal lobes, which are reciprocally connected (forward and backward) by nerve fibers to other parts of the brain such as occipital lobe (stored visual memory) and, the temporal lobes where verbal and conceptual knowledge is partially stored, and the somatosensory cortex where sensations of touch and body sensations are located. The nerve fiber interconnections permit the frontal lobes to access information stored as memories within each of these brain centers. The frontal lobes put on organizational control over the access and processing of stored information. There are other major nerve tracts interconnecting between frontal lobes and deeper region of the brain known as the limbic system. It has multiple function. It regulates new information to be stored in long term memory. Also limbic system mediates our emotional or affective responses. Since the frontal lobe can access and moderate our emotional sensations during information processing. We will refer to this as affective functions. It seems that these complex networks dynamically organize information as a memory to increase the networking of information during recall and its application.
 

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Talents may be artistic or technical, mental or physical, personal or social. You can be a talented introvert or a talented extrovert. Learning to look for your talents in the right places and building those talents into skills and abilities might take some work, but going about it creatively will let you explore your natural abilities and find your innate talents. You’re not going to find a talent without trying. You can only find your natural abilities, skills, and talents when you test your mettle and actively seek new experiences. If you never try, you'll never know. Seek out challenges and obstacles to see what innate skills and abilities you might be hiding. We can find our talents along 3 steps including looking for talents, getting creative and building on talent. For step 1: stop waiting for talents to appear, try things that are easy, try things that are hard, follow your obsessions, keep track of little successes and ignore the television. For step 2: take a personality quiz, talk to your friends and family, look at both your strengths and your weaknesses for talent possibilities and define talent for yourself. For step 3: commit to building your talent into a skill, find other talented people, and respect the complexity of your talent and practice.
 

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Educational neuroscience or mind, brain, and education science was born in the past two decades from the mega of research findings of neuroscience, education, and psychology. These finding develop our understandings about teaching and learning. Our knowledge about different areas of the brain and their activity in the learning and memory process, effect of the different areas in training and specific behavior could help the psychologist and teachers to design appropriate strategy and a new academic discipline for educational practice. Insight into Educational neuroscience findings lead to teachers is working smarter, not harder. The advent of social neuroscience, art and effectiveness of the environment on the intelligence added our knowledge about attention, spatial skills, and creativity of educators. In conclusion, we should indicate that educational neuroscience is caused educational theory and practice became much more research-based, similar to the medical model.
 

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Many people think that all you need to succeed at anything is talent but talent alone without perseverance and determination, cannot help you achieve success. Talent is helpful but perseverance ensured one achieves success. A child can show an exceptional talent for storytelling, but if he ignores his teacher’s comments and doesn’t work on his stories, he will never be a great novelist. Talent is an in born quality which makes us capable of achieving success whereas perseverance enables us to achieve something. A person with talent may have the capability to achieve success but to achieve it you have to work towards it. A person without talent but having determination can achieve success. They help in shaping a human’s future. People having talent, determination and perseverance might be successful. It can be achieved if the person sticks to his goal.

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Children need to learn to use the roads safety. Road safety is essential for children’s freedom, development and exercise. When walking near a road it is a good idea to: 1. Hold your child's hand. 2. Don't let them run ahead. 3. Look out for and encourage your child to be aware of hidden entrances or driveways crossing the pavement. 4. Put reins on a younger child if they're not strapped in a pushchair. 5. Make sure your child walks on the side of the pavement away from the traffic. 6. Never let your child goes near a road alone or even with an older child. 7. Explain that pedestrians have to wait on the pavement until all the traffic coming from both directions has stopped - only then is it safe to cross. 8. Tell your child not to cross where they can't see far along the road. 9. Explain that they should not try to cross a road between parked cars; drivers won't be able to see them very well and the cars might start moving. 10. Warn your child to watch for cyclists or motorcyclists who might not have seen them. 11. Make sure your child can be seen easily, for example bright or fluorescent clothes are best during the day and reflective materials work well at night. Children are generally not ready to cross roads on their own until they are at least eight years old and many will not be ready even then.

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Children under 3 years of age must not travel in a car or goods vehicle (other than a taxi) unless restrained in the correct child seat. Children aged 3 years or over who are under 150 cm in height and weighing less than 36 kilograms must use the correct child seat, booster seat or booster cushion. Rearward-facing child car seats must never be used in the front passenger seat of cars with an active airbag. Children up to the age of six months must be secured in an approved rearward facing restraint. Children aged from six months old but less than four years old must be secured in either a rear or forward facing approved child restraint with an inbuilt harness. Children under four years old cannot travel in the front seat of a vehicle with two or more rows. Children aged from four years old but less than seven years old must be secured in a forward facing approved child restraint with an inbuilt harness or an approved booster seat. If your child is too small for the child restraint specified for their age, they should be kept in their current child restraint until it is safe for them to move to the next level. If your child is too large for the child restraint specified for their age, they may move to the next level of child restraint.