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Introduction: Disease modifying treatment strategies for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) have led to a severe need for finding biomarkers to be able to establish a reliable diagnosis at a very early stage and also to follow up the patient and their response to therapy. Amyloids β (Αβ) which predominate in amyloid plaques constitute one major neuropathologic hallmark in AD, are produced by all types of cells in the central nervous system and almost all cells in peripheral tissues. Increased plasma level of this peptide is reported in prodromal stage of AD, in mild cognitive impairment. Conclusion: Different genetic, imaging and biochemical studies suggest that increased plasma Aβ can begin many years before the onset of symptoms in AD, indicating that it does not require preexisting neural abnormalities. It remains to be verified if the proof of plasma Aβ in clinically healthy subjects represents a prognostic factor pointing to a risk of pending AD.

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Introduction: Spreading depression (SD) is a bioelectrical event in the central nervous system and involves in the pathophysiology of some neurological disorders. In this present study, we indicate enhancement of long-term potentiation of hippocampus tissue in juvenile rats faced to cortical spreading depression repetitively. Materials and Methods: Silver recording electrodes as well as a cannula were implanted over the brain of juvenile rats. Repetitive cortical SD events were induced by KCl 3 M weekly injection through the cannula. The brains were removed after 4 weeks. Transverse sections were prepared and incubated in artificial cerebrospinal fluid. Single electrical stimulations were applied through a bipolar electrode placed on to the hippocampal Schaffer collaterals. The field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSP) were elicited by adjusting the intensity of stimulation to 50% of that at which population spikes began to appear. Results: Repetitive SD enhanced the long-term potentiation in CA1 hippocampal area. The data indicate that repetitive cortical SD in juvenile rats significantly increases the amplitude of the fEPSP form the baseline. Conclusion: This may clarify the pathophysiology of memory deficit were seen in some neurological disorders in children.

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Introduction: Memory is ability to acquisition, maintenance and retrieval of information, which is classified through different ways. Complex mechanisms play a role in learning and memory that ultimately leads to biochemical, morphological and physiological changes at the level of synaptic and neural networks. The basic mechanisms involved in the formation and stabilization of memory are synaptic facilitation, long term potentiation and long term depression. Conclusion: Considering the importance of glutamate receptors (especially NMDA subtype), calcium homeostasis, balance between kinases and phosphatases, calcineurin, cellular adhesion molecules, extracellular matrix, glial cells, and different neurotransmitters in process of memory formation, this study evaluate the cellular and molecular pathways involved in learning and memory.

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This paper provides an overview of the results of research related to anxiety disorders within the context of learning disabilities. About 8% of the student population in Iran suffers from learning disabilities (LD). Most of the criteria for anxiety disorders in ICD–10 or DSM–IV–TR can be applied reliably and validly in individuals with mild-to-moderate learning disabilities. Besides the clinical cognitive and physiological features of anxiety in LD students usually the most common behavioral manifestations of anxiety are avoidance and absenteeism. Anxiety problems may directly affect child’s learning due to the initial cognitive deficits or by indirectly influencing achievement by undermining the resources children have to overcome their learning difficulties. This article presents the results of two separate studies using different intervention programs (VAKT and relaxation and cognitive-behavior therapy), addressing learning difficulties and anxiety problems in students with learning disabilities in Iran. Two groups of second through fourth graders, with a prior diagnosis of learning difficulties, participated in each study. One of the research samples consisted of six students. One student from each grade was randomly assigned to the experimental and control group. An anxiety test and nine sets of spelling and reading tests (separate forms for each grade with the same difficulty level) were used as the pretest, posttest and follow-up test in these researches. In the 1st study the designed combined program was implemented for the experimental group for 14 two-hour sessions. In each session, program comprised of different fun, innovative, hands-on and grade-appropriate VAKT learning activities along with relaxation exercises. Exercises were used twice in every session. Sample of the 2nd research comprised of 22 LD students. 11 students were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. The intervention phase for the experimental group started and continued for 12 two-hour sessions. The package included the individually designed cognitive-behavioral therapy and learning activities. In the 1st study to examine changes in dependent variables, the mean scores were calculated for the experimental and control groups, figures were drawn and looked for the indexes of level, variability and trend. For the 2nd study ANCOVA test was used (F= 58.62, P<0.001). The results showed that the experimental group from both the studies benefited from the use of the intervention programs, with a significant decrease in learning problems and anxiety level. The joint effect of the programs look promising in promoting learning and reducing the anxiety problems in students with LD.

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In attention to the role of relationship between child and parents in child development, the purpose of the present study was to determine the relationship of anxiety in students with learning disabilities based on parenting style. This study was causal-comparative design. Study population included all parents of children with learning disabilities attending special centers during academic year 2012-2013, in which 150 parents of children with learning disabilities were selected as a sample group by using of multi stage cluster random sampling. Data were collected by using the Conner’s rating scale and the short form and the Robinson, Mandlece, Olsen and hart parenting styles questionnaire. The data were analyzed by using correlations. The results of this study revealed that there is a significant and positive correlation between authoritarian and permissive parenting style (The authoritarian style, parents are demanding and receptive to the needs and desires of children. Also, a permissive style of parenting, exercise less control over their children, and their demands are not unreasonable) with anxious problems of students with learning disabilities (P<0.01), but significant correlation was not observed between authoritative parenting style (parents who use an authoritative style, convey facts to allow their children and their children are more willing to accept the reasons for rejecting a guide to show) and anxious problems of students with learning disabilities. The results showed that students with learning disabilities are problems with anxiety and parenting practices have a significant relationship exist. The finding is in line with most previous research in this area. In general, authoritarian and permissive parenting style is an important factor in the development of psychological disorders.

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Introduction: Trimethyltin (TMT) acts as a potent neurotoxic compound, especially in the hippocampus and therefore, it induces cognitive and memory impairments in both human and animals. The beneficial effects of sodium valproate (VPA) on cognitive functions of the brain havebeen suggested.In the present study, the effect of VPA on learning and memory deficits induced by trimethyltin was investigated in rats using Morris water maze test. Materials and Methods: Twenty three male Wistar rats were divided into control, TMT and TMT+VPA groups. TMT was injected as a single dose (12 mg/kg) in the TMT as well as TMT+VPA groups. Animals of the TMT+VPA group were treated by 10 mg/kg of the VPA daily for 2 weeks. Then, Morris water maze test was performed for all groups. Results: The escape latency and traveled path to reach the platform in the TMT group were significantly higher than control group.Treatment with VPA 10 mg/kg prevented prolongation of escape latency and traveled path induced by TMT application. There were no significant differences between TMT+VPA and control groups. Conclusion: The results of the present study showed that valproic acid prevented TMT-induced memory deficits. Further investigations are needed to elucidate the mechanism of neuroprotective action of VPA in TMT model.

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Introduction: Spreading depression (SD) is a transient and self-propagating wave of neuronal and glial depolarization, followed by temporary loss of all brain activities. SD has been implicated in migraine and other headaches and can be evoked in experimental animals by electrical or chemical stimulation. It has been shown that repetitive SD produced memory deficits in juvenile rats. The effect of migraine prophylactic drugs on SD has been reported. In the present study, the effect of sumatriptan, a migraine prophylactic drug, on SD-induced memory impairments in juvenile rats was investigated. Materials and Methods: Wistar rats (60-80 gr) were divided into SD, Sham, 0.1 sumatriptan- and 0.5 sumatriptan-treated groups and SD was induced weekly for four weeks by KCl (2 M) application. Sumatriptan (0.1 and 0.5 mg/kg) was also administrated weekly for 4 weeks in treatment groups. Memory retention of passive avoidance learning in rats was evaluated by shuttle box test in different time points. Results: SD significantly increased the initial latency to enter the dark compartment. SD also impaired the retention of the learned tasks. Administration of low dose sumatriptan caused improvement in memory retention 30 minutes after learning, while the high doses could improve the memory 30 minutes, 24 hours and 1 week after learning. Conclusion: This study shows the positive role of sumatriptan in learning and memory impairment induced by repetitive SD.

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Developing and promoting self-directed learning, as an one of the goals in higher education is important because it expected from students to reach the high level of individual capabilities, and able to identify their training needs in order to fix it and evaluate their own learning, without being in a special education system. Conclusion: The literature review showed that self-directed learning is growing upward in trend development. Because of the benefits of self-directed learning, paying attention to this type of learning is fundamental for improving it and it is necessary as an important program in higher education.
 

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The hippocampus is located in the medial temporal lobe and is a part of the forebrain. It plays a critical role in formation of declared memories. The hippocampus is banana­-shaped and communicates with all parts of neocortex. Reptiles and birds have structures like hippocampus that potentially serve as navigation functions. During the mammalian evolution, the neocortex has a large expansion. There are Granule cells in the hippocampus with multitude functions which are not present in the neocortex. Physiological roles of granule cells reveal a key step to understanding hippocampal computation. At first, memories are stored in the hippocampal system via synaptic changes. In fact, when a new experience happens, it either disappears or consolidates into a long-term form of memory. It is shown that, during learning, synapses are strengthened through long-term potentiation (LTP). The hippocampus stored new input data then replays to neocortical system, and these recent memory changes reinstatements in the neocortex. Acetylcholine is essential for learning and its presence in the neocortex helps to restore memory following damage. The neocortex discovers the structure of items in ensembles of experiences, so it learns slowly, but the hippocampus system learns new items rapidly without disrupting this structure. The hippocampus permits reinstatement of new memories and integrates them into structured neocortical memory system via memory consolidation process, a process which in it memories are gradually transferred to neocortical stores. The hippocampus has a subsystem that encodes pathways between the neocortex and entorhinal cortex; and cholinergic system plays an important role in this process. Here, it could be concluded that learning new items happens in hippocampus via synaptic changes and these new items consolidate into a structured memory in the neocortex.

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When an experience is encrypted into a long-lasting memory, it is believed that specific sets of neurons in the brain of the animal undergo changes including the strengthening of preexisting synapses and the growth and maintenance of new synaptic connections. These activity-dependent synaptic changes appear to require the coordination of a variety of cellular processes in spatially separated cellular locations. Gene expression within the nucleus leads to structural changes at synapses and alterations. Whereas the establishment of short-term memory has been found to depend on the modification of preexisting cellular proteins, long-term memory requires new gene expression and the synthesis of new proteins. In the adult mammalian brain, more than 250 protein kinases are expressed, but only a few of these kinases are currently known to enable learning and memory. Based on this information it appears that learning and memory-related kinases either impact on synaptic transmission by altering ion channel properties or ion channel density, or regulate gene expression and protein synthesis causing structural changes at existing synapses as well as synaptogenesis. Activation of both protein tyrosine kinases and mitogen-activated protein kinases is required for much longer and may thus have a particular function during transformation from short-term into long-term memory. Quite different time courses appear for protein kinase C (PKC) and protein kinase A (PKA), which may function at two different time points, shortly after training and again much later. This suggests that PKC and PKA might play a role at early and late stages of memory formation.
 

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Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a biological process of learning and memory after a high-frequency train of electrical stimulations. By binding of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) to Tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrKB) receptors in postsynaptic neurons, tyrosine kinase Fyn is bound to these receptors and hereby plays a mediating role to binding and activation of N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptors (NMDARs). TrkB receptor can be initiated three different pathway includes: MAPK pathway, PI3K-Akt  pathway and PLC&gamma;-Ca 2+ pathway. So Fyn by playing a mediating role between TrkB signaling pathway and NMDARs has an important role in LTP induction.

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Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a reflection of synaptic plasticity that has an important role in learning and memory. LTP is a long-lasting increase of synaptic activity due to enhancement of excitatory synaptic transmission after a high-frequency train of electrical stimulation. The role of &alpha;-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors in excitatory synaptic transmission and LTP formation uncovered over recent decades. The activity regulation of AMPA receptors (AMPARs) has a significant role in the LTP induction. AMPARs are homomeric or heteromeric receptors combined of four subunits GLUA1 to GLUA4. GluR1 have a critical role in LTP formation in the CA1 region of hippocampus and is necessitated for synaptic delivery of AMPA receptors.

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One of the most nervous system evolution are memory and learning in humans. Learning is a skill that enhances synaptic activity in the hippocampus of prefrontal cortex. In fact, basic passive learning is communication between the conditioned and Unconditioned stimulation. Passive learning involves three steps: habit, education and remember. According to the results of investigations, the hippocampus is a part of prefrontal cortex that has very important role in spatial learning and memory stabilization.  During the learning, blood flow and oxygen consumption increases and it is influenced by hormones, drugs and various substances strongly. The Short-term and activator of excitatory pathway in some areas of limbic system in cortex lead to severe increasing in synaptic strength. Two families of omega-3 and 6 fatty acids are important for health which must be received through diet, because they are not synthesized by body. Therefore, they are known as essential fatty acids. Unsaturated fatty acids are the main components of cell membranes in the body and present at high concentrations in the central nervous system, especially brain. They absorbed in brain actively and Leads to improved memory and learning. Unsaturated fatty acids directly intervene in the brain exercise via nerve cell membrane structure and change the activity of membrane. The long-chain fatty acids are important in brain especially for development of optimal nerve cells and also for releasing neurotransmitter and cell signaling. This review discussed about the effect of fatty acids on the hippocampus and learning and its importance role. According to our result, omega-3 and six fatty acids are important in the development of the central nervous system, especially hippocampus and they have a great  influence on learning. Omega three and omega six fatty acid chains are very important for nerve cells’ development and neurotransmitter release and thus have a significant effect on learning.
 

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What is talent? How can it be identified? Who is responsible for identifying it? Are there universally valued talents, or are they all culturally bound? There are at least three different levels of analysis to explore these questions. On the government level, we must philosophically decide on how our country chooses and expresses its values through what is taught, to whom, and for what periods of time, and with what kind of teacher. On the second level of analysis, we must consider if the individual has the proper conditions in which to learn. And at the neuronal level, have we created the best conditions under which people can maximize their potential? We will explore how each of these different levels must work together to help both individuals and countries develop successfully.
 

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Performance and development are based on hard work, experience and learning. Learning how to change different behaviors is crucial to successful talent management plans. Within the brain there are complex connected circuits that can identify threats. The brain reacts to change as a threat. There is also a collection of brain structures tied to a natural reward system that are involved in the regulation of various behaviors. The brain is capable of adjusting its behavior by alerting the reward system and minimizing threat. Emotions are also important and are controlled by subcortical structures of the brain. Training of connected brain circuits enhances their plasticity and this is critical for learning, memory, and behavior. Neuroscience studies ways to create optimal learning conditions and improve behavioral approaches. Neuroscience research also can explain how we can implement a better talent development and management strategies in order to adopt successful policies.

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This talk will introduce the idea that talent development is related to learning where learning is the physiological process of neuro-plastic changes in the brain. To develop talents, individuals must move from novice or beginner’s status to expertise levels of knowledge or skills in a particular domain. Learning depends on maximizing an individual’s potential through the experiences he or she has. This means that both nature (one’s genes) and nurture (one’s experiences) play roles in talent development. What is the definition of neuro-plasticity? How does the brain learn? How much human variability is there in learning potential? What is the most up-to-date knowledge about the brain and learning and the conditions under which plasticity thrives? This presentation will share current examples and new findings related to the variability of neuro-plasticity and its impact on talent identification.
 

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Introduction: The effects of exercise and physical activity on the function of various human organs, such as heart, lung, and skeletal muscle have long been known. In recent years, more attention has been focused on the effects of exercise on the nervous system and memory. Recently, it has been shown that the brain responds to the physical activities in the anatomical, cellular, and molecular levels. It is surprising that many of these changes occur in some brain structures that involve in the memory, learning, and cognitive functions. It has been shown that exercise can improve mental performance and enhances learning and memory. Conclusion: Both structural and functional changes of the brain in response to exercise play a crucial role in improvement of the memory and learning. The present study was reviewed the mechanisms involved in the memory and learning improvement followed by exercise.

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Introduction: Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a generic term that applies to a form of activity-dependent plasticity that induced by high-frequency or theta burst stimulation and results in enhancement of synaptic transmission. LTP has a key role in learning and memory. Different types of LTP have been observed in distinctive areas of the central nervous system. Hippocampal CA1 area is vital for the formation of long-term memory. Conclusion: Several studies have been shown the importance of signaling pathways in the development of memory and learning. In this review is intended to present an overview of the role of synaptic ion channels, ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors as well as TrkB receptor in LTP formation of learning and memory.

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Introduction: Sex-dependent changes of behavioral responses in humans and animals has been widely investigated. There are also controversial reports regarding the role of sex hormones in memory and learning. The present study carried out to compare spatial learning of male, female and ovariectomized (OVX) rats in Morris water maze.  Materials and Methods: Twenty four rats were divided into 3 groups: 1) male, 2) female, 3) OVX. The animals were ovariectomized under ketamine anesthesia (150 mg/kg, I.P.). The same procedure as OVX rats was performed on the female and male rats except the wound was closed without removing the ovaries.8 weeks later, the animals of all groups were tested in Morris Water Maze. The escape latency, traveled path lengh and swimming speed to reach the platform were compared between groups. Results: Time latency in both OVX and male groups was significantly higher than female group . However, path length in OVX group was higher than female group, there was no significant difference in path length between male and female or between male and OVX groups. The swimming speed in male group was lower than female group. Conclusion: It might be concluded that endogenous estrogen has an important role in sex dependent differences of spatial learning.

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Anxiety disorders are the most common reasons for referring to specialized clinics. If the response to stress changed, anxiety can be greatly controlled. The most obvious effect of stress occurs on circulatory system especially through sweating. the electrical conductivity of skin or in other words Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) which is dependent on stress level is used; beside this parameter person's heart rate is measured for more accuracy and reducing error. When the person encounters with relaxation training and biofeedback, he can reduce his stress due to changes in GSR circuits. In this article it is offered stress management by Q-learning along with biofeedback that is more efficient than other methods computationally. The purpose is reducing the amount of stress by getting feedback from biological signals (biofeedback) using photo and music playback. Response to the electrical resistance of the skin is measured by passing the flow through the sensors on it. In fact, it is possible to get information (feedback) from the body (bio) by connecting the electrical sensors on hand. So the person can be aware of his situation, according to LEDs placed on the machine. The person should focus on the photos and music which are playable by using Q-learning to make maximum changes in stress reduction. In general, it can be concluded, the image and rough tracks, raises stress levels, heart rate increased, the amount of sweat resulting in increased resistance and reduced voltage level, LEDs that can be embedded on the device, see the role of Q-learning is stress management by playing photo and music due to therapist condition instead of a psychologist in the clinics. So in this study it is presented a method for stress management with Q-learning to improve the accuracy of diagnosis with easy way, early detection, low cost and new style.